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2.1. Verb root types
The morphological properties of a Miluk verb root are largely determined by its phonological structure. Miluk roots can be categorized into several basic root types according to their consonant pattern. The distinction between obstruents and sonorants plays a major role here.
The most common root types are: KK, CVRK, KVR, KKVR. Here are some examples:
2.2. Affixation
Miluk affixes are predominantly suffixes. There are only a few infixes (probably only three) and prefixes (one or two), but these include the very often used ergative case marking prefix χ- and the transitive direct infixes -a1-/-ā1- and -a2-/-ā2-.
Combiations of suffixes are common, but at a very moderate level of complexity. The maximal number of suffixes appears to be four, e.g. -ānīdāmi (= -ēn + -y + -d + -āmi), although mostly, only one or two suffixes are found on a word.
2.3. Reduplication
In Miluk, we can find three types of reduplication, intensive reduplication, partial reduplication, and stative reduplication. Intensive and partial reduplication operate to the left, whereas stative reduplication operates to the right. Here, I will only outline the formal aspects of the three reduplication types. Some of the following examples show de-glottalization due to the constraint on the cooccurrence of ejectives in a single word.
2.3.1. Intensive reduplication
The basic shape of intensive reduplication is determined by the number of initial consonants of the root: for roots starting with a single consonant, intensive reduplication involves two root consonants; if the root begins with a cluster, one of the consonants of the cluster is selected for reduplication.
If the root starts and ends with a single consonant (excluding KK roots), intensive reduplication is realized as full reduplication:
For roots beginning with a single consonant and ending in a cluster, the reduplicated syllable is composed of the initial consonant, a default vowel (i.e. ə, or a/e following uvular obstruents), and one of the consonants of the final cluster. For the common root type CVRK, the final obstruent is selected:
For other types of final clusters, there are only few examples, but the following general rule can deduced: for the second consonant of the reduplicated syllable, the first obstruent of the final cluster is chosen, regardless of preceding sonorants or of any following consonant. If the final cluster does not contain an obstruent, then the first sonorant is chosen.
With roots that begin with an initial obstruent cluster, only one of the obstruents is reduplicated. The selection of the reduplicated consonant is determined by the place of articulation. The more common type is reduplication of the second member of the cluster:
The same pattern is found with the following clusters: tb/tġ (front + front/back), ƛb/sc/č̓ǯ/ɫj/sλ/sg/sġʷ/ƛhʷ (central + front/central/back), kˀ/kʷˀ (back/back).
Reduplication of the first consonant is found with the following clusters: kd/qt/q̓d/k̓š/kɫ/kƛ/χs (back + central/front), tš/tǯ (front + central), e.g.:
In order to state a general rule for these reduplication patterns, we have to define a feature of "heaviness" for the place of obstruent reduplication, with the following ranking:
back > front > central.
The reduplication rule can then be formulated as follows: if the first obstruent is heavier than the second obstruent, then it will be selected for reduplication. Otherwise, the second obstruent is selected.
2.3.2. Partial reduplication
This is a rare variant of intensive reduplication, only found with four roots with a single initial consonant. In combination with the passsive suffix -u, these roots display reduplication of the initial consonant only:
At least for the root √wəməyd, partial reduplication appears next to intensive reduplication.
2.3.3. Stative reduplication
Stative reduplication is formed by reduplicating the final consonant to the right, separated by a default vowel or an infix. For final obstruents stative reduplication occurs without constraints; roots with a final sonorant can take stative reduplication only in conjunction with an infix.
For roots with a final sonorant without a supporting infix, stative reduplication is replaced by glottalization.
2.4. Glottalization
Glottalization of resonants is an intricate feature of Miluk morphophonology. Stative glottalization of final resonants appears to be the regular allomorph of stative reduplication if there is a following suffix:
The suffixes -īt̓a and -əyam usually trigger stative reduplication of final obstruents, whereas -īn is the common inverse marker for obstruent-final verbs with stative reduplication.
Furthermore, several suffixes contain a sonorant that appears to have intrinsic glottalization, which however only appears after plain sonorants. Examples include -īw̓e (inchoative), -iy̓a (transitive direct) and -ām̓i (speaker-to-adressee):
Following an obstruent or a glottalized sonorant, these suffixes appear with a plain sonorant:
<< Previous: Introduction Next: Basic phrase and clause structure >>
The morphological properties of a Miluk verb root are largely determined by its phonological structure. Miluk roots can be categorized into several basic root types according to their consonant pattern. The distinction between obstruents and sonorants plays a major role here.
The most common root types are: KK, CVRK, KVR, KKVR. Here are some examples:
KK
CVRK
KVR
KKVR
CVRK
KVR
KKVR
k̓x "shoot", tb "bury", tš "push inside", ɫq̓ʷ "flow", χt̓ "pour out"
p̓əls "tear", mənč̓ "ask", halgʷ "take out", līx (= ləyx) "move"
t̓əm "pack", cū (= cəw) "kill", gʷəl "roll", deɣ "pick (berries)"
qtəm "answer", kˀel "call", kɫū (= kɫəw) "see", ƛbəl "capsize"
p̓əls "tear", mənč̓ "ask", halgʷ "take out", līx (= ləyx) "move"
t̓əm "pack", cū (= cəw) "kill", gʷəl "roll", deɣ "pick (berries)"
qtəm "answer", kˀel "call", kɫū (= kɫəw) "see", ƛbəl "capsize"
2.2. Affixation
Miluk affixes are predominantly suffixes. There are only a few infixes (probably only three) and prefixes (one or two), but these include the very often used ergative case marking prefix χ- and the transitive direct infixes -a1-/-ā1- and -a2-/-ā2-.
Combiations of suffixes are common, but at a very moderate level of complexity. The maximal number of suffixes appears to be four, e.g. -ānīdāmi (= -ēn + -y + -d + -āmi), although mostly, only one or two suffixes are found on a word.
2.3. Reduplication
In Miluk, we can find three types of reduplication, intensive reduplication, partial reduplication, and stative reduplication. Intensive and partial reduplication operate to the left, whereas stative reduplication operates to the right. Here, I will only outline the formal aspects of the three reduplication types. Some of the following examples show de-glottalization due to the constraint on the cooccurrence of ejectives in a single word.
2.3.1. Intensive reduplication
The basic shape of intensive reduplication is determined by the number of initial consonants of the root: for roots starting with a single consonant, intensive reduplication involves two root consonants; if the root begins with a cluster, one of the consonants of the cluster is selected for reduplication.
If the root starts and ends with a single consonant (excluding KK roots), intensive reduplication is realized as full reduplication:
dandan:u "come ashore"
dəmt̓əmai "pack"
bībai "bring it back"
wusūsu "take home"
iλīƛ̓u "break"
dəmt̓əmai "pack"
bībai "bring it back"
wusūsu "take home"
iλīƛ̓u "break"
< √dan + intensive reduplication + -ū
< √t̓əm + intensive reduplication + -ai
< √bəy + intensive reduplication + -a2-
< √wəs + intensive reduplication + -u
< √yəƛ̓ + intensive reduplication + -u
< √t̓əm + intensive reduplication + -ai
< √bəy + intensive reduplication + -a2-
< √wəs + intensive reduplication + -u
< √yəƛ̓ + intensive reduplication + -u
For roots beginning with a single consonant and ending in a cluster, the reduplicated syllable is composed of the initial consonant, a default vowel (i.e. ə, or a/e following uvular obstruents), and one of the consonants of the final cluster. For the common root type CVRK, the final obstruent is selected:
mikman:ak "beat it"
bəsp̓əl:as "tear it"
haqhal:aq̓ "name it"
pixpīyax "paint it"
hʷuthʷīyat "run"
bəsp̓əl:as "tear it"
haqhal:aq̓ "name it"
pixpīyax "paint it"
hʷuthʷīyat "run"
< √meng + intensive reduplication + -a2-
< √p̓əls + intensive reduplication + -a2-
< √helq̓ + intensive reduplication + -a2-
< √pəyx + intensive reduplication + -a2-
< √hʷəyd + intensive reduplication + -a2-
< √p̓əls + intensive reduplication + -a2-
< √helq̓ + intensive reduplication + -a2-
< √pəyx + intensive reduplication + -a2-
< √hʷəyd + intensive reduplication + -a2-
For other types of final clusters, there are only few examples, but the following general rule can deduced: for the second consonant of the reduplicated syllable, the first obstruent of the final cluster is chosen, regardless of preceding sonorants or of any following consonant. If the final cluster does not contain an obstruent, then the first sonorant is chosen.
wuswāsdai "return"
wutwumyāt "follow it"
ˀeqˀelqsi "afraid"
hičhič̓āu "collect it"
wulwulwiyu "search"
wutwumyāt "follow it"
ˀeqˀelqsi "afraid"
hičhič̓āu "collect it"
wulwulwiyu "search"
< √wēsd + intensive reduplication + -ai
< √wəməyd + intensive reduplication + -ā2-
< √ˀelqs + intensive reduplication + -i
< √həč̓əw + intensive reduplication + -ā2-
< √wəlw + intensive reduplication + -iyu
< √wəməyd + intensive reduplication + -ā2-
< √ˀelqs + intensive reduplication + -i
< √həč̓əw + intensive reduplication + -ā2-
< √wəlw + intensive reduplication + -iyu
With roots that begin with an initial obstruent cluster, only one of the obstruents is reduplicated. The selection of the reduplicated consonant is determined by the place of articulation. The more common type is reduplication of the second member of the cluster:
ˀakˀāl "call it"
< √kˀel + intensive reduplication + -ā2-
The same pattern is found with the following clusters: tb/tġ (front + front/back), ƛb/sc/č̓ǯ/ɫj/sλ/sg/sġʷ/ƛhʷ (central + front/central/back), kˀ/kʷˀ (back/back).
Reduplication of the first consonant is found with the following clusters: kd/qt/q̓d/k̓š/kɫ/kƛ/χs (back + central/front), tš/tǯ (front + central), e.g.:
gik̓šuwai "gamble"
< √k̓šəw + intensive reduplication + -ai
In order to state a general rule for these reduplication patterns, we have to define a feature of "heaviness" for the place of obstruent reduplication, with the following ranking:
back > front > central.
The reduplication rule can then be formulated as follows: if the first obstruent is heavier than the second obstruent, then it will be selected for reduplication. Otherwise, the second obstruent is selected.
2.3.2. Partial reduplication
This is a rare variant of intensive reduplication, only found with four roots with a single initial consonant. In combination with the passsive suffix -u, these roots display reduplication of the initial consonant only:
ġaġalmu "take"
uˀumidu "follow"
hehemilǯu "deliver"
gik̓il:idu "find"
uˀumidu "follow"
hehemilǯu "deliver"
gik̓il:idu "find"
< √ġalm + partial reduplication + -u
< √wəməyd + partial reduplication + -u
< √heməlǯ + partial reduplication + -u
< √k̓əld + partial reduplication + -u
< √wəməyd + partial reduplication + -u
< √heməlǯ + partial reduplication + -u
< √k̓əld + partial reduplication + -u
At least for the root √wəməyd, partial reduplication appears next to intensive reduplication.
2.3.3. Stative reduplication
Stative reduplication is formed by reduplicating the final consonant to the right, separated by a default vowel or an infix. For final obstruents stative reduplication occurs without constraints; roots with a final sonorant can take stative reduplication only in conjunction with an infix.
q̓eišəšēnu "strike ball"
wāsdədiyam "come back"
sūlal "love it"
wāsdədiyam "come back"
sūlal "love it"
< √q̓eyš + stative reduplication + -ēn + -u
< √wēsd + stative reduplication + -iyam
< √sūl + stative reduplication + -a2-
< √wēsd + stative reduplication + -iyam
< √sūl + stative reduplication + -a2-
For roots with a final sonorant without a supporting infix, stative reduplication is replaced by glottalization.
2.4. Glottalization
Glottalization of resonants is an intricate feature of Miluk morphophonology. Stative glottalization of final resonants appears to be the regular allomorph of stative reduplication if there is a following suffix:
c̓wul̓īn "bother (inv)"
hāw̓īt̓a "raise them"
ʒənw̓iyam "come"
k̓um̓iyam "die"
hāw̓īt̓a "raise them"
ʒənw̓iyam "come"
k̓um̓iyam "die"
< √c̓wəl + -īn
< √hēw + -īt̓a
< √ʒənw + -iyam
< √k̓ʷəm + -iyam
< √hēw + -īt̓a
< √ʒənw + -iyam
< √k̓ʷəm + -iyam
The suffixes -īt̓a and -əyam usually trigger stative reduplication of final obstruents, whereas -īn is the common inverse marker for obstruent-final verbs with stative reduplication.
Furthermore, several suffixes contain a sonorant that appears to have intrinsic glottalization, which however only appears after plain sonorants. Examples include -īw̓e (inchoative), -iy̓a (transitive direct) and -ām̓i (speaker-to-adressee):
ǯinhehēniw̓e "think"
gʷəl:iy̓a "roll it"
ƛ̓aɣ:iy̓a "starve it"
ġʷəsġʷiyām̓i "I tell you"
niyam̓i " I give you"
cuwam̓i "I kill you"
gʷəl:iy̓a "roll it"
ƛ̓aɣ:iy̓a "starve it"
ġʷəsġʷiyām̓i "I tell you"
niyam̓i " I give you"
cuwam̓i "I kill you"
< √ǯinh + stative reduplication + -ēn + -īw̓e
< √gʷəl + -iy̓a
< √ƛ̓aɣ + -iy̓a
< √sġʷəy + intensive reduplication + -ām̓i
< √nəy + -ām̓i
< √cəw + -ām̓i
< √gʷəl + -iy̓a
< √ƛ̓aɣ + -iy̓a
< √sġʷəy + intensive reduplication + -ām̓i
< √nəy + -ām̓i
< √cəw + -ām̓i
Following an obstruent or a glottalized sonorant, these suffixes appear with a plain sonorant:
hāt̓īwa "sing"
λuw̓īwe "eat"
ʒamt̓iya "take it off"
pūkʷiya "enslave"
mičmin:č̓āmi "I ask you"
sul̓āmi "I love you"
λuw̓īwe "eat"
ʒamt̓iya "take it off"
pūkʷiya "enslave"
mičmin:č̓āmi "I ask you"
sul̓āmi "I love you"
< √hāt̓ + -īw̓e
< √λəw + stative glottalization + -īw̓e
< √ʒemt̓ + -iy̓a
< √pəwkʷ + -iy̓a
< √mənč̓ + intensive reduplication + -ām̓i
< √səwl + stative glottalization + -ām̓i
< √λəw + stative glottalization + -īw̓e
< √ʒemt̓ + -iy̓a
< √pəwkʷ + -iy̓a
< √mənč̓ + intensive reduplication + -ām̓i
< √səwl + stative glottalization + -ām̓i
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