Valency changing morphology
The dynamic passive
The dynamic passive has two forms, the u-passive and the m-passive. Both are agent-suppressing passives, i.e. the agent cannot be explicitly expressed in the clause, whereas the object is promoted to the role of the single intranstive subject. Pragmatically, it is mostly used to express the action of a backgrounded plural actor (usually recoverable from context) on a foreground participant.
The u-passive
For the great majority of verb roots, the u-passive is formed by combining the transitive suffix -i and the intransitive suffix -u, resulting in the composite suffix -iyu.
Many verb roots further undergo intensive reduplication in the formation of the passive. This is regularly so for roots of the shape CK, and roots ending in the semivowel w.
With roots ending in the sonorants n, m and i, we find an unusual realization of the transitive suffix -i as infix -ī-.
Finally, there is a small number of verbs which lack the transitive suffix -i in the formation of the passive. This is a regular feature for roots ending in y.
Further instances of bare -u as passive marker include roots with uncommon root structure. Three of these have partial reduplication as a concomitant feature.
The m-passive
The m-passive has a much lower text frequency than the u-passive, but a wider range of formal variation. It can combine with the thematic suffix -d or the applicative suffix -y̓ (see below), and there are further some expanded forms with opaque internal structure.
With plain roots or reduplicated intensive bases, the m-passive is marked by the suffix -q̓hem.
In combination with the thematic suffix -d, the m-passive has the allomorph -ʰēm, resulting in the complex suffix -tēm (with aspiration of the thematic suffix).
The stative passive
The subject of stative passive is a patient, and emphasis is laid on the state or result of an action. No reference is made to the agent or the initiating action. The stative thus comes closest to a typical passive participle.
The stative form always displays stative reduplication, and takes an infixed vowel e or ē. For roots ending with an obstruent, the long vowel is selected.
Note that aspirated stops in roots of the type KK change into plain stops, followed by a supporting unstressed ə.
Sonorant-final roots take a short-vowel infix -e- in the reduplicated syllable. Roots of the type (C)CVR further take a long-vowel infix ē, yielding (C)CēReR for the stative.
Antipassive
Unlike the dynamic passive which fills a well-defined pragmatic slot in the inflection of transitive verbs, or unlike the stative passive, which is fully productive and regular, the formation of the antipassive for transitive verb roots is better seen as a derivational process in Miluk.
Two intransitive suffixes are employed in the formation of the antipassive, viz. -ai and -yam. As described in Section 5, the suffix -ai is usually combined with the intensive reduplicated base. The antipassive function is mostly found with verbs which do not allow a reflexive or reciprocal meaning.
For the antipassive use of the suffix -yam, I have only found two examples in the corpus.
The applicative suffix -y̓ (-ī)
The suffix -y̓ forms transitive bases from intransitive verbs, indicating as object the goal, or with verbs of motion, an object taken along with the motion. Intransitive verbs with the suffix -ēn̓ are always transitivized using the applicative suffix -y̓. The sonorant of the suffix is inherently glottalized, but following the general constraints, this sonorant is de-glottalized if it follows an obstruent or a glottalized resonant on the root.
The local and inverse forms of the applicative base always employ the thematic suffix -d. In this case, the suffix -y̓ is syllabified to -ī.
The direct form of applicative bases is always simultaniously marked by the infix -ā2- and the suffix -a. With most bases, no thematic suffix appears in the direct form.
For three applicative bases in the corpus, the direct form takes the thematic suffix -d.
The passive of applicative bases is always incated by the m-passive. Strangely enough, the three bases which have a thematic suffix in the direct form, lack this suffix in the passive form, resulting in the simple passive suffix -īm. On the other hand, at least two applicative bases which lack a thematic suffix in the direct form, employ this suffix in the formation of the m-passive suffix, which has the shape -ītēm.
The dynamic passive
The dynamic passive has two forms, the u-passive and the m-passive. Both are agent-suppressing passives, i.e. the agent cannot be explicitly expressed in the clause, whereas the object is promoted to the role of the single intranstive subject. Pragmatically, it is mostly used to express the action of a backgrounded plural actor (usually recoverable from context) on a foreground participant.
The u-passive
For the great majority of verb roots, the u-passive is formed by combining the transitive suffix -i and the intransitive suffix -u, resulting in the composite suffix -iyu.
men:giyu "is beaten"
hāġʷiyu "is left"
wanġayu "is piled up"
lāliyu "is put indside"
pūkʷiyu "is enslaved"
hāġʷiyu "is left"
wanġayu "is piled up"
lāliyu "is put indside"
pūkʷiyu "is enslaved"
< √meng
< √hāġʷ
< √wanġ
< √lāl
< √pəwkʷ
< √hāġʷ
< √wanġ
< √lāl
< √pəwkʷ
+ -i + -u
+ -i + -u
+ -i + -u
+ -i + -u
+ -i + -u
+ -i + -u
+ -i + -u
+ -i + -u
+ -i + -u
Many verb roots further undergo intensive reduplication in the formation of the passive. This is regularly so for roots of the shape CK, and roots ending in the semivowel w.
heuhēwiyu "is raised"
gikɫūyu "is seen"
wulwulwiyu "is searched for"
bitbiu "is buried"
ġatġāyu "is defeated"
ǯič̓ǯiu "is pulled out"
gikɫūyu "is seen"
wulwulwiyu "is searched for"
bitbiu "is buried"
ġatġāyu "is defeated"
ǯič̓ǯiu "is pulled out"
< √hēw
< √kɫəw
< √wəlw
< √tb
< √tġ
< √č̓ǯ
< √kɫəw
< √wəlw
< √tb
< √tġ
< √č̓ǯ
+ intensive reduplication + -i + -u
+ intensive reduplication + -i + -u
+ intensive reduplication + -i + -u
+ intensive reduplication + -i + -u
+ intensive reduplication + -i + -u
+ intensive reduplication + -i + -u
+ intensive reduplication + -i + -u
+ intensive reduplication + -i + -u
+ intensive reduplication + -i + -u
+ intensive reduplication + -i + -u
+ intensive reduplication + -i + -u
With roots ending in the sonorants n, m and i, we find an unusual realization of the transitive suffix -i as infix -ī-.
dimt̓īmu "is packed"
jišč̓īlu "is burned"
λəɫǯīlu "is made war on"
jišč̓īlu "is burned"
λəɫǯīlu "is made war on"
< √t̓əm
< √č̓əl
< √ɫǯəl
< √č̓əl
< √ɫǯəl
+ intensive reduplication + -ī- + -u
+ intensive reduplication + -ī- + -u
+ intensive reduplication + -ī- + -u
+ intensive reduplication + -ī- + -u
+ intensive reduplication + -ī- + -u
Finally, there is a small number of verbs which lack the transitive suffix -i in the formation of the passive. This is a regular feature for roots ending in y.
gīk̓īu "are killed"
gʷīgʷiyu "is insulted"
hʷuƛhʷiyu "is born"
gʷīgʷiyu "is insulted"
hʷuƛhʷiyu "is born"
< √k̓əy
< √gʷəy
< √ƛhʷəy
< √gʷəy
< √ƛhʷəy
+ intensive reduplication + -u
+ intensive reduplication + -u
+ intensive reduplication + -u
+ intensive reduplication + -u
+ intensive reduplication + -u
Further instances of bare -u as passive marker include roots with uncommon root structure. Three of these have partial reduplication as a concomitant feature.
wēsdu "is brought back"
wusūsu "is taken home"
uˀumidu "is followed"
hehemilǯu "is delivered"
ġaġalmu "is taken"
wusūsu "is taken home"
uˀumidu "is followed"
hehemilǯu "is delivered"
ġaġalmu "is taken"
< √wēsd
< √wəs
< √wəmyəd
< √heməlǯ
< √ġalm
< √wəs
< √wəmyəd
< √heməlǯ
< √ġalm
+ -u
+ intensive reduplication + -u
+ partial reduplication + -u
+ partial reduplication + -u
+ partial reduplication + -u
+ intensive reduplication + -u
+ partial reduplication + -u
+ partial reduplication + -u
+ partial reduplication + -u
The m-passive
The m-passive has a much lower text frequency than the u-passive, but a wider range of formal variation. It can combine with the thematic suffix -d or the applicative suffix -y̓ (see below), and there are further some expanded forms with opaque internal structure.
With plain roots or reduplicated intensive bases, the m-passive is marked by the suffix -q̓hem.
giɫūq̓hem "is seen"
qdilq̓hem "is shot"
hithīteq̓hem "is sold"
zəcɫənq̓hem "is moved"
qdilq̓hem "is shot"
hithīteq̓hem "is sold"
zəcɫənq̓hem "is moved"
< √gəɫəw
< √qdəl
< √həyt
< √cɫən
< √qdəl
< √həyt
< √cɫən
-q̓hem
-q̓hem
+ intensive reduplication + -q̓hem
+ intensive reduplication + -q̓hem
-q̓hem
+ intensive reduplication + -q̓hem
+ intensive reduplication + -q̓hem
In combination with the thematic suffix -d, the m-passive has the allomorph -ʰēm, resulting in the complex suffix -tēm (with aspiration of the thematic suffix).
χaɫtām "is done"
dūhitēm "is wanted"
eġēnitēm "is buried"
dūhitēm "is wanted"
eġēnitēm "is buried"
< √χaɫ
< √dəwh
< √ˀeġ
< √dəwh
< √ˀeġ
+ -d + -ʰēm
+ -y̓ + -d + -ʰēm
+ -ēn + -y̓ + -d + -ʰēm
+ -y̓ + -d + -ʰēm
+ -ēn + -y̓ + -d + -ʰēm
The stative passive
The subject of stative passive is a patient, and emphasis is laid on the state or result of an action. No reference is made to the agent or the initiating action. The stative thus comes closest to a typical passive participle.
The stative form always displays stative reduplication, and takes an infixed vowel e or ē. For roots ending with an obstruent, the long vowel is selected.
k̓ʷbēb "lined up"
dəšēš "pushed inside"
ʒəġēq̓ "hung"
gʷīdēt "left behind"
λukʷdēt "covered"
dəšēš "pushed inside"
ʒəġēq̓ "hung"
gʷīdēt "left behind"
λukʷdēt "covered"
< √k̓ʷb
< √tš
< √cġ
< √gʷəyd
< √λəkʷ
< √tš
< √cġ
< √gʷəyd
< √λəkʷ
+ stative reduplication + -ē-
+ stative reduplication + -ē-
+ stative reduplication + -ē-
+ stative reduplication + -ē-
+ stative reduplication + -ē-
+ stative reduplication + -ē-
+ stative reduplication + -ē-
+ stative reduplication + -ē-
+ stative reduplication + -ē-
Note that aspirated stops in roots of the type KK change into plain stops, followed by a supporting unstressed ə.
Sonorant-final roots take a short-vowel infix -e- in the reduplicated syllable. Roots of the type (C)CVR further take a long-vowel infix ē, yielding (C)CēReR for the stative.
hič̓uweu "gathered"
ʒinweu "brought"
č̓ēlel "burnt"
ƛ̓ēlel "closed (eyes)"
sλēnen "hidden"
ƛbēlel "capsized"
ʒinweu "brought"
č̓ēlel "burnt"
ƛ̓ēlel "closed (eyes)"
sλēnen "hidden"
ƛbēlel "capsized"
< √həč̓əw
< √ʒənw
< √č̓əl
< √ƛ̓əl
< √sλən
< √ƛbəl
< √ʒənw
< √č̓əl
< √ƛ̓əl
< √sλən
< √ƛbəl
+ stative reduplication + -e-
+ stative reduplication + -e-
+ stative reduplication + -ē- + -e-
+ stative reduplication + -ē- + -e-
+ stative reduplication + -ē- + -e-
+ stative reduplication + -ē- + -e-
+ stative reduplication + -e-
+ stative reduplication + -ē- + -e-
+ stative reduplication + -ē- + -e-
+ stative reduplication + -ē- + -e-
+ stative reduplication + -ē- + -e-
Antipassive
Unlike the dynamic passive which fills a well-defined pragmatic slot in the inflection of transitive verbs, or unlike the stative passive, which is fully productive and regular, the formation of the antipassive for transitive verb roots is better seen as a derivational process in Miluk.
Two intransitive suffixes are employed in the formation of the antipassive, viz. -ai and -yam. As described in Section 5, the suffix -ai is usually combined with the intensive reduplicated base. The antipassive function is mostly found with verbs which do not allow a reflexive or reciprocal meaning.
dəmt̓əmai "pack (things)"
akˀalai "call out"
qaqtəmai "answer"
akˀalai "call out"
qaqtəmai "answer"
< √t̓əm
< √kˀel
< √qtəm
< √kˀel
< √qtəm
+ intensive reduplication + -ai
+ intensive reduplication + -ai
+ intensive reduplication + -ai
+ intensive reduplication + -ai
+ intensive reduplication + -ai
For the antipassive use of the suffix -yam, I have only found two examples in the corpus.
λuw̓iyam "eat"
ɫāqaqayam "wait"
ɫāqaqayam "wait"
< √λəw
< √ɫāq
< √ɫāq
+ stative reduplication + -yam
+ stative reduplication + -yam
+ stative reduplication + -yam
The applicative suffix -y̓ (-ī)
The suffix -y̓ forms transitive bases from intransitive verbs, indicating as object the goal, or with verbs of motion, an object taken along with the motion. Intransitive verbs with the suffix -ēn̓ are always transitivized using the applicative suffix -y̓. The sonorant of the suffix is inherently glottalized, but following the general constraints, this sonorant is de-glottalized if it follows an obstruent or a glottalized resonant on the root.
The local and inverse forms of the applicative base always employ the thematic suffix -d. In this case, the suffix -y̓ is syllabified to -ī.
bahanan̓īdāmi "I advise you"
lač̓īdai "you call me"
k̓ʷīnīdūn "pities you/me"
lač̓īdai "you call me"
k̓ʷīnīdūn "pities you/me"
< √behen
< √lēč̓
< √k̓ʷəyn
< √lēč̓
< √k̓ʷəyn
+ -ēn̓ + -ī + -d + -ām̓i
+ -ī + -d + -ai
+ -ī + -d + -ūn
+ -ī + -d + -ai
+ -ī + -d + -ūn
The direct form of applicative bases is always simultaniously marked by the infix -ā2- and the suffix -a. With most bases, no thematic suffix appears in the direct form.
wulway̓a "search for it"
səlt̓āya "go out with it"
k̓ʷīnay̓a "pity her"
bahan:an̓āya "advise her"
hawāsanay̓a "lie to her"
ǯinhahānay̓a "think about her"
səlt̓āya "go out with it"
k̓ʷīnay̓a "pity her"
bahan:an̓āya "advise her"
hawāsanay̓a "lie to her"
ǯinhahānay̓a "think about her"
< √wəlw
< √səlt̓
< √k̓ʷəyn
< √behen
< √hews
< √ǯənh
< √səlt̓
< √k̓ʷəyn
< √behen
< √hews
< √ǯənh
+ -a2- + -y̓ + -a
+ -ā2- + -y̓ + -a
+ -a2- + -y̓ + -a
+ -ēn̓ + -ā2- + -y̓ + -a
+ -ē- + -ēn̓ + -a2- + -y̓ + -a
+ stative reduplication + -ēn̓ + -a2- + -y̓ + -a
+ -ā2- + -y̓ + -a
+ -a2- + -y̓ + -a
+ -ēn̓ + -ā2- + -y̓ + -a
+ -ē- + -ēn̓ + -a2- + -y̓ + -a
+ stative reduplication + -ēn̓ + -a2- + -y̓ + -a
For three applicative bases in the corpus, the direct form takes the thematic suffix -d.
lāč̓iyāda "call her"
məc̓əsiyāda "know her"
k̓ʷāniy̓ada "know her"
məc̓əsiyāda "know her"
k̓ʷāniy̓ada "know her"
< √lēč̓
< √məc̓əs
< √k̓ʷēn
< √məc̓əs
< √k̓ʷēn
+ -y̓ + -ā2- + -d + -a
+ -y̓ + -ā2- + -d + -a
+ -y̓ + -a2- + -d + -a
+ -y̓ + -ā2- + -d + -a
+ -y̓ + -a2- + -d + -a
The passive of applicative bases is always incated by the m-passive. Strangely enough, the three bases which have a thematic suffix in the direct form, lack this suffix in the passive form, resulting in the simple passive suffix -īm. On the other hand, at least two applicative bases which lack a thematic suffix in the direct form, employ this suffix in the formation of the m-passive suffix, which has the shape -ītēm.
lēč̓īm "is called"
mic̓isīm "is known"
k̓ʷēn̓īm "is known"
dūhitēm "is wanted"
eġēnitēm "is buried"
mic̓isīm "is known"
k̓ʷēn̓īm "is known"
dūhitēm "is wanted"
eġēnitēm "is buried"
< √lēč̓
< √məc̓əs
< √k̓ʷēn
< √dəwh
< √ˀeġ
< √məc̓əs
< √k̓ʷēn
< √dəwh
< √ˀeġ
+ -y̓ + -m
+ -y̓ + -m
+ -y̓ + -m
+ -y̓ + -d + -ʰēm
+ -ēn + -y̓ + -d + -ʰēm
+ -y̓ + -m
+ -y̓ + -m
+ -y̓ + -d + -ʰēm
+ -ēn + -y̓ + -d + -ʰēm
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